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Address reprint requests to Mark B. Orringer, MD, Section of General Thoracic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical Center, 2120 Taubman Center, Box 0344, 1500 East Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.
Transthoracic esophagectomy and an intrathoracic esophagogastric anastomosis was the standard surgical approach to resectable esophageal carcinoma since the late 1930s, when this operation was first performed successfully. For those of us who became accustomed to this operation, postoperative respiratory insufficiency associated with combined thoracic and abdominal incisions in a debilitated patient and mediastinitis associated with an intrathoracic anastomotic leak were well-recognized, all too frequent and dreaded complications. It was a common teaching that the maximally mobilized stomach would reach to the apex of the right chest for a high intrathoracic esophagogastric anastomosis above the divided azygous vein. There was also a prevailing notion that, while the stomach was the preferred esophageal substitute for patients with carcinoma, for those with benign esophageal disease requiring esophageal resection, preservation of the gastric reservoir was important, and a colonic interposition preferred.
In the mid-1970s, the feasibility of transhiatal esophagectomy (THE) without thoracotomy and a cervical esophagogastric anastomosis (CEGA) for both benign and malignant esophageal disease was reported.
The theoretic advantages of the approach were (1) avoidance of a thoracotomy and (2) placement of the anastomosis in the neck, where a postoperative leak translated to a relatively benign salivary fistula rather than mediastinitis, with its 50% mortality rate. As is often the case with a novel approach to an old problem, the thoracic surgery “establishment” criticized THE for (1) its lack of meticulous hemostasis and (2) its “blind” and therefore “unsafe” mediastinal dissection. At the time, thoracic surgeons were generally not comfortable with a cervical approach to the esophagus and an esophagogastric anastomosis above the level of the clavicles, and there was often expressed skepticism that the stomach would reach to the neck in the majority of patients. It was also fascinating to hear criticism of THE evolve on the basis of it being a poor oncologic operation, since no attempt was made in THE to resect all regional mediastinal lymph nodes. For years, transthoracic esophagectomy had been performed primarily as a palliative operation, with little emphasis on the importance of removing mediastinal lymph nodes other than those directly associated with the esophageal tumor. But as THE emerged as an alternative to transthoracic esophagectomy, those uncomfortable with the concept could challenge its use on the basis of “oncologic surgical principles.”
THE and a CEGA—“the gastric pull-up procedure”—has now become a widely used approach to esophageal resection and reconstruction for both benign and malignant esophageal disease. The operative technique described in this article is a culmination of progressive refinements—mobilizing and handling of the stomach, transhiatal mobilizing of the esophagus, preparing the gastric conduit, transposing it through the mediastinum to the neck, and constructing the cervical esophagogastric anastomosis. Although in my experience, this approach has been applicable in 97% of all patients requiring esophageal resection, it is to be emphasized that there are clear contraindications to proceeding with a THE or situations in which gastric replacement of the esophagus is not feasible. In patients with esophageal cancer, tracheobronchial invasion by upper- or mid-third tumors or aortic invasion demonstrated by magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, or esophageal endoscopic ultrasonography preclude a THE. Patients with biopsy-proven distant (M1) carcinoma are not candidates for esophagectomy of any type. In patients who have had prior esophageal surgery (fundoplication, esophagomyotomy, perforation repair) the surgeon must be prepared to convert to an open thoracotomy if excessive mediastinal adhesions preclude a transhiatal approach. In those with esophagogastric junction carcinomas which may necessitate resection of a major portion of the stomach, a barium enema to assess the suitability of the colon as an esophageal substitute and a preoperative bowel preparation are indicated. It cannot be overstated that the single most important contraindication to a THE is the surgeon’s assessment at the time of exploration through the diaphragmatic hiatus that there is fixation of the esophagus to adjacent vital structures that renders this approach unsafe; there is no shame in performing a thoracotomy to resect the esophagus.
Careful patient selection and preoperative assessment are vital to a successful esophagectomy. Evaluation of nutritional status, general medical condition, pulmonary function, and cardiac status is particularly important. Improvements in the preoperative preparation of patients undergoing an esophagectomy are as important in decreasing morbidity and mortality as the operation itself. I require that patients (1) abstain from cigarette smoking and alcohol for a minimum of 3 weeks before esophagectomy, (2) use an incentive inspirometer on a regular basis during this time for preoperative pulmonary physiotherapy, and (3) walk 1 to 3 miles per day to condition themselves for early postoperative ambulation. For those with severe dysphagia, liquid diet supplements by mouth or nasogastric feeding tube are administered at home. Patients are admitted for esophagectomy the day of scheduled surgery.
Operative Technique
The patient is positioned supine with a small rolled sheet beneath the scapulae to extend the neck. The head is turned toward the right with the occiput stabilized on a head ring. The skin of the anterior neck, chest, and abdomen is prepared and draped from the mandibles to the pubis and anterior to both midaxillary lines. The arms are padded and placed at the sides, with venous and arterial access lines well protected. In patients in whom there is concern that transthoracic mobilization of the esophagus may be required (eg, patients with middle-third esophageal carcinoma or those being operated on after prior esophageal operations), a set of thoracic instruments and retractors are available. However, I prefer the supine position for virtually all patients undergoing an esophagectomy. If it is necessary to perform a thoracotomy, the abdominal and cervical incisions are closed with several interrupted sutures and covered with adherent plastic drapes, and the patient is turned to the appropriate side for a full posterolateral thoracotomy, clearly the best means of obtaining exposure to the esophagus in the posterior mediastinum. Use of a table-mounted, self-retaining (upper-hand) retractor provides ample exposure for a THE. THE is performed in 4 separate phases: abdominal, cervical, mediastinal, and the anastomosis.
Abdominal Phase
The abdomen is entered through a midline supraumbilical incision (Fig. 1, inset). Exploration of the upper abdomen is performed to determine that the stomach is not too extensively involved by tumor or severe adhesions from prior operations to preclude its use as an esophageal replacement. The triangular ligament of the liver is divided, and the left lobe of the liver is retracted to the right with the liver blade of the upper hand retractor. If a previous gastrostomy has been performed, the stomach is “taken down” from the anterior abdominal wall, and the gastrostomy site is temporarily sutured closed, a more thorough and meticulous closure being performed once the stomach is totally mobilized. Attention is turned to the high greater curvature of the stomach. The greater omentum is retracted to the left, and a filmy layer of omentum along the high greater curvature is incised, allowing entry into the lesser omental sac. With the fingers placed within the lesser sac, downward traction on the greater omentum allows sequential identification and division of the high short gastric and left gastroepiploic vessels. This is typically done using 13-in long right-angled clamps and 2-0 silk ties. Rather than proceeding all the way superiorly along the greater curvature of the stomach and dividing the highest short gastric vessels near the spleen, it is best to continue dissection of the greater omentum away from the stomach, moving more distally toward the pylorus. Every effort is made to preserve the communication of the right and left gastroepiploic vessels when it exists; this is not often the case, however. The right gastroepiploic artery is carefully identified and protected throughout the gastric mobilization. The omentum is separated from the right gastroepiploic vascular arcade at least 1.5 to 2 cm inferior to the vessel to avoid injury to the artery. Mobilization of the greater omentum away from the stomach proceeds to a point just proximal to the level of the pylorus. Attention is then redirected to the high greater curvature of the stomach. With retraction of the stomach to the right and the greater omentum to the left, the highest short gastric vessels are identified, clamped, divided, and ligated, taking care to avoid injury to both the spleen and gastric necrosis from ligating these vessels too near the stomach wall. Adhesions between the posterior gastric wall and the retroperitoneum are divided to ensure full gastric mobility.
Figure 1After gastric mobilization, the Kocher maneuver, pyloromyotomy, feeding jejunostomy, and mobilization of the distal 10 cm of esophagus, the abdominal phase of the THE has been completed. The abdominal incision is covered with a moistened abdominal pack, and attention is turned to the neck.
With separation of the omentum from the greater curvature of the stomach complete, the peritoneum overlying the esophageal hiatus is incised, and the distal esophagus is encircled with a 1-in rubber drain. Mobilization of the lesser curvature of the stomach is begun by placing a hand behind the stomach from the greater curvature side and identifying the filmy gastrohepatic omentum, which is incised with electrocautery. Division of the gastrohepatic omentum is performed to the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus. If an aberrant left hepatic artery is palpated in the process, the vessel is preserved as the left gastric artery is dissected. The mid stomach is then retracted laterally to the left, thereby tensing the soft tissues along the high lesser curvature. The left gastric vein is identified, clamped, divided, and ligated. Lymph nodes surrounding the origin of the left gastric artery from the celiac axis are mobilized and dissected laterally with the stomach. If there is an aberrant left hepatic artery arising from the left gastric artery, the hepatic blood supply is preserved and the left gastric artery divided distal to the origin of the hepatic vessel. If there is no aberrant hepatic artery, the left gastric artery is doubly ligated and divided as close as possible to its origin from the celiac artery. Soft tissue and lymph nodes adjacent to the left gastric artery are mobilized laterally with the stomach. With mobilization of the high lesser curvature and high greater curvature of the stomach completed, attention is turned to the diaphragmatic hiatus. The phrenoesophageal attachments are divided with electrocautery as near as possible to the hiatal musculature, and this fibroareolar tissue is mobilized with the esophagus. If there is tumor fixation at the diaphragmatic hiatus, it may be necessary to resect a rim of diaphragmatic hiatus along with the specimen. Once the phrenoesophageal attachments have been divided, gentle palpation and blunt dissection of the distal esophagus at the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus allow insertion of a narrow Deaver retractor into the hiatus and lower mediastinum. Periesophageal tissues contained within the mediastinal pleura on either side of the distal esophagus are mobilized en bloc with the esophagus. If during this or subsequent portions of the transhiatal mobilization of the esophagus, entry into either pleural cavity is recognized, the nursing staff is notified that a chest tube will be required. The distal 5 to 10 cm of esophagus is freed from the mediastinum using long right-angled clamps inserted into the inferior mediastinum to allow division and ligation of periesophageal soft tissue under direct vision. As the esophagus is progressively freed, its mobility within the posterior mediastinum is assessed by “rocking” the esophagus (and its contained tumor when present) from side to side to demonstrate fixation to the adjacent spine, prevertebral fascia, or aorta. Generally, such direct mobilization of the esophagus and its periesophageal soft tissues is possible nearly to the level of the carina working upward through the diaphragmatic hiatus. After determining that transhiatal esophageal mobilization will likely be possible, the lower mediastinum is packed with an abdominal pack to encourage hemostasis, and attention is turned toward completion of the abdominal phase of the operation.
A generous Kocher maneuver is performed until there is sufficient mobility of the duodenum to allow the pylorus to be displaced from its normal location in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen to the level of the xiphoid process medially. Two 3-0 silk traction sutures are placed through the superior and inferior aspects of the pylorus, which is gently elevated in preparation for performance of a pyloromyotomy. A 1.5 to 2 cm long pyloromyotomy is performed using electrocautery and a fine-tipped vascular mosquito clamp to gently dissect and elevate the pyloroduodenal musculature away from the underlying submucosa. The pyloromyotomy begins on the gastric side, approximately 1.5 cm from the pylorus and extends through the pylorus and onto the duodenum for another 0.5 to 1 cm. If the pyloroduodenal mucosa is violated, the hole is closed with several interrupted 5-0 polypropylene sutures. A hemoclip is placed near the pylorus on each of the 2 previously placed traction sutures, which are then cut. These hemoclips are used to provide radiographic localization of the pylorus in future contrast studies.
A 14F rubber jejunostomy feeding tube is inserted 8 to 10 inches beyond the ligament of Treitz and secured in place using a Weitzel maneuver. The jejunostomy tube protruding from the inferior end of the abdominal incision is covered with a folded towel, which is clamped on either side to the drapes to prevent inadvertent dislodging of the jejunostomy during the subsequent portions of the operation.
Cervical Phase
Figure 2I prefer to stand on the left side of the operating table for this portion of the operation. The position of the cricoid cartilage is determined by palpation. This represents the level of the cricopharyngeal sphincter. A 5 to 7 cm oblique incision paralleling the anterior border of the left sternocleidomastoid muscle is made, the most superior extent of the incision being no more than 2 to 3 cm superior to the cricoid cartilage.
Figure 3The platysma muscle is divided, the underlying sternocleidomastoid muscle identified, and the fascia along its anterior edge incised in the direction of the wound. By vigorous blunt finger retraction in the direction of the incision, the sternocleidomastoid muscle is separated from the underlying fascia medial to it.
Figure 4The sternocleidomastoid muscle is retracted laterally with a right-angled (Army-Navy) retractor, and the underlying omohyoid muscle is identified traversing the wound in its downward trajectory from medial to lateral. The central omohyoid tendon is elevated with a right-angled clamp and divided with electrocautery. Upward traction on the divided omohyoid muscle allows identification of the contiguous omohyoid fascial layer, which is incised superiorly and inferiorly in the direction of the incision. This maneuver leads to the carotid sheath and its contents, which are gently retracted laterally, as the larynx and trachea are simultaneously retracted medially.
Figure 5No retractor other than the surgeon’s finger is placed against the recurrent laryngeal nerve in the tracheoesophageal groove during any portion of the operation. If there is a middle thyroid vein traversing the center of the wound, it should be divided between clamps and ligated. The cervical fascia medial to the carotid artery is incised the length of the incision. With the level of the cricoid cartilage as a landmark, the inferior thyroid artery is identified in the same plane at the depths of the cervical wound, clamped between fine right-angled clamps, divided, and ligated. The dissection proceeds directly posteriorly to the prevertebral fascia, which is followed by blunt finger dissection into the superior mediastinum. To facilitate exposure, the left anterior cervical strap muscles are divided with electrocautery as near to the clavicle as possible, avoiding injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve in the tracheoesophageal groove.
Figure 6Gentle finger retraction is used to elevate the cervical esophagus out of the superior mediastinum and maximize the length available for mobilization.
Figure 7The paraesophageal soft tissue is incised posterolaterally to the tracheoesophageal groove (dotted line) to avoid injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Elevation of the esophagus out of the mediastinum is maintained as dissection of the esophagus posterior and lateral to the trachea is performed by blunt dissection, carefully avoiding the tracheoesophageal groove and the recurrent laryngeal nerve within it. The anterior wall of the esophagus is mobilized and progressively retracted laterally, until by blunt finger dissection the left index finger can palpate the medial edge of the esophagus and the prevertebral fascia just behind it.
Figure 8This position of the left index finger is maintained as a right-angled clamp is passed behind the esophagus from lateral to medial, thereby completing circumferential mobilization of the esophagus. The cervical esophagus is encircled with a 1-in rubber drain, which is retracted superiorly, elevating the upper esophagus into the wound and allowing blunt dissection of the lateral esophageal attachments down into the superior mediastinum. Care is taken to dissect the esophagus with the volar aspects of the fingers against the esophageal wall in the midline to avoid injury to the adjacent posterior membranous trachea. This technique is used to mobilize the cervicothoracic esophagus well in the superior mediastinum to the level of the carina.
Figure 9THE is performed in an orderly reproducible sequence of steps and is not a random extraction of the esophagus from the posterior mediastinum. Palpation of the esophagus through the diaphragmatic hiatus first determines that the esophagus (and any contained tumor) is mobile within the posterior mediastinum and therefore potentially resectable through the transhiatal route. One hand is inserted through the diaphragmatic hiatus posterior to the esophagus and is advanced upward along the prevertebral fascia.
Figure 10The encircled cervical esophagus is retracted anteriorly and to the patient’s right as a half sponge on a stick is inserted through the cervical incision posterior to the esophagus and advanced down through the superior mediastinum along the prevertebral fascia. The esophagus is progressively mobilized away from the prevertebral fascia until the sponge stick inserted from above meets the hand inserted through the diaphragmatic hiatus. During this and subsequent steps of the transhiatal mobilization, care is taken to deliberately keep the dissecting hand as close to the spine as possible, thereby avoiding pressure against the heart and the potential for prolonged hypotension from cardiac displacement. Throughout the transhiatal dissection, blood pressure is monitored with a radial artery catheter to avoid prolonged hypotension. Once the posterior dissection of the esophagus has been completed, a 28F Saratoga sump catheter (Argyle, Tyco Healthcare Group, LP, Mansfield, MA) is inserted from the cervical incision downward into the mediastinum to assist in evacuation of blood.
Figure 11After completion of the dissection posterior to the esophagus, the anterior esophageal dissection is next performed. The esophagogastric junction is gently retracted inferiorly by the rubber drain encircling the esophagogastric junction, and the surgeon’s hand is inserted against the anterior wall of the esophagus palm downward and is advanced upward into the mediastinum.
Figure 12A mirror-image dissection of the anterior esophagus away from the posterior aspect of the pericardium and the carina is now performed. At the cervical incision, the encircled esophagus is now retracted superiorly and toward the patient’s left shoulder as 2 fingers with their volar aspects against the anterior wall of the esophagus are advanced downward into the superior mediastinum. Care must be taken to continually dissect posteriorly away from the posterior membranous trachea above and the pericardium below.
Figure 13With the anterior and posterior mobilization of the esophagus completed, the cervical esophagus is “hooked” by the surgeon’s left index finger and elevated out of the superior mediastinum by traction, as the lateral esophageal attachments are progressively dissected away from the esophagus as it is delivered into the neck wound. Using this technique of dissection, a 5 to 8 cm length of upper esophagus is circumferentially mobilized.
Figure 14The hand inserted through the diaphragmatic hiatus is now advanced along the anterior wall of the esophagus to the level of the cervical esophageal mobilization.
Figure 15“Trapping” the esophagus against the prevertebral fascia between the index and middle fingers, a downward raking motion of the hand is used to avulse the small remaining upper esophageal periesophageal attachments. Small vagal branches attaching to the esophagus may be avulsed. Larger, more tough vagal branches encountered below the pulmonary hila, or fibrotic lateral esophageal attachments, may either be fractured by firm compression between the index finger and the thumb or delivered downward closer to the diaphragmatic hiatus, so that with a retractor placed within the hiatus, the attachments can be visualized, clamped with a long right-angled clamp, divided, and ligated (inset). At times, all but 1 to 2 cm of the esophagus in the subcarinal or subaortic area are mobilized working through the cervical and diaphragmatic hiatal approaches, and additional access to the upper thoracic esophagus is required.
Figure 16The dissection may be facilitated by a partial upper sternal split which allows division of the remaining periesophageal attachments under direct vision.
Figure 17After the entire intrathoracic esophagus has been completely mobilized, several inches of esophagus are elevated out of the mediastinum into the cervical wound. The nasogastric tube is withdrawn above the level of the upper esophageal sphincter, and the esophagus is divided obliquely with a gastrointestinal anastomosis (GIA) surgical stapler applied from front to back with the anterior tip being left slightly longer than the posterior corner. In deciding the point at which the upper esophagus should be divided, several centimeters of excess length are intentionally left, because at later construction of the cervical esophagogastric anastomosis, particularly in the rare case in which there is difficulty getting the gastric fundus to reach to the neck, the availability of “extra” esophagus may allow an otherwise difficult anastomosis to be performed without tension. When operating for benign disease involving the distal half of the esophagus, the cervical esophagus and upper third of the thoracic esophagus are left intact. If the gastric fundus cannot be mobilized well into the cervical wound for construction of the anastomosis, through a partial upper sternal split, the additional length of upper esophagus easily approximates the gastric fundus for construction of the anastomosis.
Once the esophagus is divided in the neck, the stapled proximal end is grasped with an Allis clamp, which is elevated and retracted toward the right as the stomach is gently pulled downward and elevated out of the abdominal wound, drawing the attached thoracic esophagus out of the posterior mediastinum through the diaphragmatic hiatus. As soon as the esophagus is delivered out of the posterior mediastinum, a narrow Deaver retractor is inserted into the diaphragmatic hiatus as the Saratoga sump catheter (Argyle) is advanced downward through the cervical incision into the posterior mediastinum. The posterior mediastinum is carefully inspected through the hiatus as blood is evacuated with the sump catheter. Bleeding from an aortic esophageal artery may be identified, controlled with a long right-angled clamp, and the vessel ligated. In addition to looking for any untoward bleeding, either side of the mediastinal pleural is inspected for its integrity both visually and by palpation. If entry into either pleural cavity during the esophageal dissection has occurred, a 28F chest tube is inserted in the appropriate anterior axillary line in approximately the sixth intercostal space, and the tip of the tube is advanced upward to the apex of the chest. The tube is secured to the skin and connected to underwater chest tube suction.
The blades of the upper-hand retractor are removed from the abdominal wound during chest tube insertion to minimize distortion of the proposed entry site of the chest tube. Once the required chest tube(s) is in place, the 2 upper-hand body wall retractor blades are reinserted into the abdominal wound, but the “liver blade” is no longer used, since retraction of the liver upward and to the right draws the lesser curvature of the stomach along with it and minimizes the needed mobility and upward reach of the stomach. With major posterior mediastinal bleeding excluded, 1 large abdominal pack is inserted into the posterior mediastinum through the diaphragmatic hiatus to tamponade minor bleeding during further preparation of the stomach. The hiatus retractor is removed. Through the cervical incision, while simultaneously protecting the tracheoesophageal groove from direct contact, the upper mediastinum is gently packed with 2 smaller gauze packs (thoracic packs). The divided cervical esophagus and cervical wound are covered with a moist pack as attention is redirected to the abdomen.
As the technique of transhiatal esophageal mobilization has been refined, our focus has shifted toward methods of avoiding a subsequent cervical esophagogastric anastomotic leak. Minimizing trauma to the mobilized gastric tip has emerged as the single most important factor in ensuring a healthy, well-vascularized cervical esophagogastric anastomosis. Tracture sutures into the tip of the stomach and suction devices used to pull the stomach through the posterior mediastinum and into the neck wound are therefore avoided. The overarching principle has become that the stomach should be pink and healthy in the abdomen at the completion of gastric mobilization and pink and healthy in the cervical wound when it is time to begin the CEGA, if one hopes to minimize the incidence of anastomotic leak and its substantial late morbidity. Preservation of as much stomach as is possible, rather than attempting to “tubularize” the stomach to more closely approximate the size of the esophagus, is advocated to retain as much of the gastric submucosal collateral circulation as is possible.
While early in my experience, “suspension sutures” between the gastric tip and cervical prevertebral fascia were placed with the intent of eliminating tension on the cervical esophagogastric anastomosis, such sutures are now avoided to minimize both gastric tip trauma and the potential risk of bacterial seeding of a cervical disk and subsequent vertebral osteomyelitis. Once the stomach has been manipulated through the posterior mediastinum, beneath the aortic arch, through the thoracic inlet, and into the cervical incision, its retraction downward into the mediastinum is seldom a problem. Avoidance of torsion of the stomach during its mobilization through the posterior mediastinum is critically important. One must be aware of the proper orientation of the lesser curvature gastric staple suture line on the right side of the intrathoracic stomach and the portion of the stomach mobilized into the cervical wound. In addition, gentle simultaneous palpation of the anterior surface of the stomach through the diaphragmatic hiatus and the cervical incision ensures that no twist has occurred.
Figure 18With the stomach and attached esophagus placed on the anterior abdominal and thoracic wall, the point on the gastric fundus along the greater curvature which will reach most superiorly to the neck is identified, gently grasped with a moist pack, and drawn toward the neck. An area along the high lesser curvature of the stomach at approximately level of the second vascular arcade (“crow’s foot”) from the cardia is cleared of fat and blood vessels between clamps and ties. The upper stomach is then divided progressively by an average of 3 applications of the GIA 60 surgical stapler beginning from the lesser curvature and proceeding toward the fundus.
Figure 19With each application of the stapler, traction on the gastric fundus progressively straightens the lesser curvature of the stomach from its normal curvature toward the right and maximizes potential upward reach of the stomach toward the neck. The esophagus and proximal stomach with attached paraesophageal and perigastric lymph nodes are then removed from the field. The lesser curvature gastric staple suture line is oversewn with 2 running 4-0 polypropylene Lembert stitches interrupted at the midpoint to lessen the chance that the suture will break as the stomach is drawn into the neck. The abdominal and thoracic packs previously placed into the posterior mediastinum are now removed, and the posterior mediastinum is inspected for the last time for bleeding. Rarely is any significant residual bleeding encountered at this point.
Figure 20A single, narrow Deaver retractor is inserted into the diaphragmatic hiatus and elevated while the left upper quadrant contents and the liver are retracted to the left and right, respectively. The tip of the gastric fundus is gently grasped and manipulated upward through the diaphragmatic hiatus, beneath the aortic arch, and into the superior mediastinum as the retractor in the hiatus and those retracting the liver and spleen are withdrawn from the abdominal wound. The gastric fundus is advanced superiorly through the mediastinum until an index finger inserted through the cervical incision can palpate the tip of the stomach. A Babcock clamp is inserted downward into the superior mediastinum from the cervical incision as the tip of the gastric fundus is guided into the clamp by the hand in the posterior mediastinum alongside the stomach and, without completely closing the jaws of the clamp, the gastric tip is grasped and drawn upward into the cervical wound as the hand in the mediastinum is withdrawn. A 4 to 5-cm length of stomach above the level of the clavicles is obtained more by pushing the stomach upward through the mediastinum from “below” rather than pulling the stomach upward from the neck incision (inset).
To avoid potential infectious complications from contamination of the abdominal wound by oral bacteria, we routinely complete the abdominal phase of the operation before opening the cervical esophagus and beginning construction of the cervical esophagogastric anastomosis. After mobilizing the gastric tip into the cervical incision, a ligated high short gastric vessel is clamped with a hemostat to gently “anchor” the stomach in the neck, and the neck wound is covered with a saline-moistened gauze pack. The color of the stomach within the cervical wound and the position of the hemostat are assessed several times as the abdominal phase of the operation is completed. Inevitably, the diaphragmatic hiatus has been inordinately stretched during the transhiatal mobilization. Before closing the abdomen, the left side of the hiatus is narrowed with one or two #1 silk sutures, so that the hiatus feels loose with 3 fingers alongside the stomach. The edge of the diaphragmatic hiatus is sutured to the anterior gastric wall with one or two 3-0 silk sutures. The previously mobilized left hepatic lobe is returned to its proper location, and the lateral edge of the divided triangular ligament of the liver is sutured to the left side of the diaphragmatic hiatus to further discourage migration of an intestinal loop into the chest through the diaphragmatic hiatus. The pyloromyotomy generally comes to rest 3 to 4 cm inferior to the level of the diaphragmatic hiatus. The feeding jejunostomy tube is brought out through the left upper quadrant of the abdomen, the jejunostomy site is sutured to the anterior abdominal wall, and the tube is secured to the skin with suture. In the event that venous congestion of the gastric tip in the cervical wound develops, the diaphragmatic hiatus should be inspected to be certain that is has not been excessively narrowed, and a crural suture should be removed if necessary. The abdominal incision is then closed, covered with a sterile towel, and excluded from the field as attention is turned to the neck for construction of the cervical esophagogastric anastomosis.
Cervical Esophagogastric Anastomosis
Figure 21The properly mobilized stomach generally reaches 4 to 5 cm above the level of the left clavicle. The stapled end of the divided esophagus is grasped with an Allis clamp and elevated superiorly and to the right. The anterior surface of the gastric fundus is gently grasped with a Babcock clamp and elevated into the field, further rotating medially the lesser curvature gastric staple line. A seromuscular traction suture of 3-0 silk is placed distal to the clamp and is used to elevate the anterior gastric wall to the surface of the wound.
Figure 22By lowering the divided end of the esophagus onto the anterior gastric wall, the site of the anastomosis (dotted line) is defined, and a 1.5 to 2 cm vertical gastrotomy is performed on the anterior gastric wall. The gastrotomy must be placed low enough on the stomach to later allow full insertion of the 3-cm long staple cartridge. It is important to leave some redundant esophageal length when determining how much esophagus will be required for the anastomosis. For once the anterior traction suture on the stomach is removed, the stomach will partially retract toward the thoracic inlet, and if the remaining esophagus has been trimmed back so that it is too short, there will be tension on the anastomosis.
Figure 23As the stapled end of the esophagus is gently retracted inferiorly with 2 Allis clamps, the esophagus is grasped obliquely with a DeBakey forceps, which serves as a guide for transection of the tip of the esophagus. This amputated end of the esophagus is submitted to pathology as the “proximal esophageal margin.”
Figure 24Placement of the 2 stay sutures described next is critical in aligning the back wall of the esophagus with the front wall of the stomach for construction of the stapled cervical esophagogastric anastomosis. One suture passes through the anterior tip of the obliquely divided esophagus and the other in and out of the upper corner of the gastrotomy and then through the posterior tip of the divided esophagus.
Figure 25An Autosuture Endo GIA 30–3.5 staple cartridge (United States Surgical Corp, Norwalk, CT) is inserted with the thinner anvil portion in the stomach and the thicker staple-bearing portion in the esophagus. The traction sutures are gently drawn downward as the advancing stapler proceeds inward. It is extremely important that the posterior wall of the esophagus and the anterior wall of the stomach be aligned (insets A and B).
Figure 26Once the jaws of the stapler have been closed, 2 “suspension” sutures between the cervical esophagus and adjacent gastric wall are placed on either side.
Figure 27The stapler is fired and the knife advanced, thereby constructing a 3-cm long side-to-side anastomosis. The stapler is removed. A nasogastric tube is now inserted by the anesthesiologist and guided into the intrathoracic stomach.
Figure 28“Corner sutures” of 4-0 polyglactin 910 (Vicryl) are placed on either side of the opened esophagus and stomach. The remaining gastrotomy and esophagotomy are closed in 2 layers of 4-0 monofilament absorbable suture, the first a running inverting stitch.
Figure 29The second layer consists of interrupted sutures between the esophagus and gastric wall. Each side of the anastomosis is marked with a metallic hemostatic clip for future radiographic assessment. The wound is then irrigated with iodine solution, a .25-in rubber drain is placed at the depth of the incision, muscle fascia is reapproximated with no more than five or six 3-0 absorbable interrupted sutures, and the skin edges are reapproximated with running 4-0 nylon. After the dressings have been applied, a portable chest radiograph is obtained in the operating room to verify expansion of the lungs and proper placement of the chest tube(s).
Since 1976, my associates and I have performed approximately 1,950 transhiatal esophagectomies without thoracotomy at the University of Michigan, nearly 80% for carcinoma and 20% for benign disease.
The patients have ranged in age from 14 to 92 years (average 62 years), one quarter of the patients being 71 years of age or older. The stomach was used as the esophageal substitute in 97% of these patients. Colon was required to replace the esophagus only in those with a history of a prior gastric resection for peptic ulcer disease or a caustic gastric injury resulting in scarring and a contracted stomach. Categorically, the properly mobilized stomach will virtually always reach to the neck for a cervical esophagogastric anastomosis.
There have been 4 intraoperative deaths (<1%) due to uncontrollable mediastinal bleeding during esophageal mobilization. Additional intraoperative complications included the need for a chest tube(s) because of entry into one or both pleural cavities in approximately 75% of patients; a splenectomy (3%); membranous tracheal laceration (<1%); and violation of the gastric or duodenal mucosa during performance of the pyloromyotomy (<2%), managed successfully in all cases by repair with interrupted 5-0 polypropylene sutures and a buttress of the repair with adjacent omentum. Postoperatively, 6 patients (<1%) have required a thoracotomy for control of mediastinal bleeding occurring within 24 hours of THE. Recurrent laryngeal nerve injury occurred in <5% of patients overall, in less than 2% during the past 5 years. The importance of avoiding the placement of a metal retractor against the tracheoesophageal groove during any part of the cervical dissection and construction of the anastomosis is clear. Chylothorax has occurred in <1% of patients and has been successfully managed with an aggressive policy of early ligation of the injured thoracic duct.
In this large series of esophagectomies, <2% of patients have experienced clinically significant atelectasis or pneumonia, a testimony to improved preoperative preparation (no smoking, walking, and use of an incentive inspirometer), less impairment of pulmonary function with an upper midline abdominal incision than with a combined thoracic and abdominal approach, and use of epidural anesthesia to manage postoperative pain. The overall cervical esophagogastric anastomotic leak rate of 13% in our first 1,000 patients treated with THE has now been reduced to <4% since initiation of the side-to-side stapled CEGA,
which is illustrated in this article. Gastric tip necrosis necessitating takedown of the CEGA and construction of a cervical esophagostomy has occurred in <1% of patients.
The overall hospital mortality rate has been <4%, and 82% have experienced no postoperative complications.
In general, the functional results of esophageal replacement with stomach and CEGA have been good, approximately 80% reporting absolutely no symptoms related to eating, or minimal occasional dysphagia, regurgitation, or postvagotomy “dumping” symptoms requiring no treatment; 17%, a “fair” result, requiring an occasional dilatation of a cervical esophagogastric anastomotic stricture or periodic need for medication to control reflux symptoms or dumping; and 3%, a “poor” result, requiring regular dilatation for a severe CEGA stricture or chronic use of medication to control reflux or intractable dumping symptoms.
For patients with esophageal cancer treated with a THE and CEGA, the overall 2-year survival rate has been approximately 48% and the 5-year survival rate 24%. Survival rates for a group of 49 of our patients receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy and being complete responders (T0N0) on final pathology were 86% at 2 years and 48% at 5 years. We continue to advocate neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy before THE in patients with stage II and III esophageal cancer who are less than 75 years of age and physically able to tolerate this treatment.
THE and a CEGA is an effective means of managing the patient with both benign and malignant esophageal disease requiring resection. The advantages of THE over transthoracic esophagectomy have been demonstrated in a recent meta-analysis of 7,527 patients.
A successful THE requires rather rigid adherence to a series of technical steps outlined in this article. Our patients typically have epidural catheters for postoperative analgesia and are extubated in the operating room after a 3 to 5-hour operation and a chest radiograph that confirms there is no unrecognized hemo- or pneumothorax. They do not go to the intensive care unit but rather directly to our thoracic surgery general care floor, where immediate use of their incentive inspirometer used preoperatively is resumed, and ambulation the next day is begun. The nasogastric tube is discontinued on the third postoperative day, oral liquids are begun on day 4, and diet is progressively advanced to a soft diet by day 7. Jejunostomy tube feeding is begun on postoperative day 3 and is gradually tapered as oral intake improves. A routine barium swallow examination is obtained on day 7 to document (1) integrity of the anastomosis, (2) adequacy of gastric emptying, and (3) any evidence of partial small bowel obstruction at the jejunostomy tube site. Patients are typically discharged from the hospital on the seventh or eighth postoperative day.
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